feat: elf loading

Cargo.lock

@@ -9,6 +9,10 @@ dependencies = [
  "limine",
 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "init"
+version = "0.1.0"
+
 [[package]]
 name = "limine"
 version = "0.6.5"

Cargo.toml

@@ -3,6 +3,9 @@ name = "dusk"
 version = "0.1.0"
 edition = "2024"
 
+[workspace]
+members = [".", "userspace/init"]
+
 [dependencies]
 limine = "0.6.5"
 

Makefile

@@ -6,17 +6,17 @@ MEMORY ?= 512M
 # In MB
 ISO_SIZE ?= 512
 QEMU_OPTS ?= 
-#MKSQUASHFS_OPTS ?= 
 GDB ?= 
 CPUS ?= 1
 # FAT type
 ESP_BITS ?= 32
-EXPORT_SYMBOLS = true
+#EXPORT_SYMBOLS = true
 
 ISO_PATH = ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}/iso_root
-#INITRAMFS_PATH = ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}/initramfs
+INITRAMFS_PATH = ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}/initramfs
 IMAGE_PATH = ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}/${IMAGE_NAME}
 ESP_IMAGE = ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}/esp.img
+USERSPACE_CARGO_OPTS = --target ${ARCH}-unknown-none
 CARGO_OPTS = -Zjson-target-spec --target=src/arch/${ARCH}/${ARCH}-unknown-none.json
 QEMU_OPTS += -m ${MEMORY} -drive id=hd0,format=raw,file=${IMAGE_PATH}
 LIMINE_BOOT_VARIATION = X64
@@ -27,6 +27,7 @@ KERNEL_FILE = target/${ARCH}-unknown-none/${MODE}/dusk.elf
 
 ifeq (${MODE},release)
 	CARGO_OPTS += --release
+	USERSPACE_CARGO_OPTS += --release
 endif
 
 ifneq (${CPUS},1)
@@ -50,7 +51,7 @@ endif
 
 all: build
 
-build: prepare-bin-files compile-bootloader compile-binaries run-scripts build-iso
+build: prepare-bin-files compile-bootloader compile-binaries compile-initramfs build-iso
 
 check: 
 		cargo check -Zjson-target-spec
@@ -63,13 +64,16 @@ prepare-bin-files:
 		# Make bin/ and bin/iso_root
 		mkdir -p ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}
 		mkdir -p ${ISO_PATH}
-		# mkdir -p ${INITRAMFS_PATH}
+		mkdir -p ${INITRAMFS_PATH}
-run-scripts:
-		# Place the build ID into the binary so it can be read at runtime
-		@HASH=$$(md5sum ${KERNEL_FILE} | cut -c1-12) && \
-		sed -i "s/__BUILD_ID__/$${HASH}/" ${KERNEL_FILE}
 
-		#python scripts/initramfs-test.py 100 ${INITRAMFS_PATH}/
+compile-user:
+		RUSTFLAGS="-C relocation-model=static" cargo build --package init ${USERSPACE_CARGO_OPTS}
+
+copy-initramfs-files: compile-user
+		cp -v target/${ARCH}-unknown-none/${MODE}/init ${INITRAMFS_PATH}/init.elf
+
+compile-initramfs: copy-initramfs-files
+		(cd ${INITRAMFS_PATH} && find . -mindepth 1 | cpio -o -H newc) > ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}/initramfs.img
 
 copy-iso-files:
 		# Limine files
@@ -81,7 +85,7 @@ copy-iso-files:
 
 		# OS files
 		cp -v ${KERNEL_FILE} ${ISO_PATH}/boot
-		#cp -v ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}/initramfs.img ${ISO_PATH}/boot
+		cp -v ${ARTIFACTS_PATH}/initramfs.img ${ISO_PATH}/boot
 
 build-esp: copy-iso-files
 		# Create and populate formatted FAT image for ESP partition (130048 1K-blocks = ~127MiB)

limine.conf

@@ -4,4 +4,5 @@ timeout: 0
     protocol: limine
     
     path: boot():/boot/dusk.elf
+    module_path: boot():/boot/initramfs.img
 

src/arch/x86_64/apic.rs

@@ -183,28 +183,6 @@ impl LocalApic {
         self.access.write(APIC_TIMER_INITIAL_COUNT, 0);
     }
 
-    // pub fn delay_ticks(&self, count: u32) {
-    //     if count == 0 {
-    //         return;
-    //     }
-
-    //     APIC_TIMER_COUNT.store(0, Ordering::SeqCst);
-
-    //     self.access
-    //         .write(APIC_LVT_TIMER, APIC_TIMER_VECTOR as u64 | APIC_LVT_MASKED);
-    //     self.access.write(APIC_TIMER_DIVIDE_CONFIG, 0b11);
-    //     self.access.write(APIC_TIMER_INITIAL_COUNT, count as u64);
-    //     self.access.write(APIC_LVT_TIMER, APIC_TIMER_VECTOR as u64);
-
-    //     while APIC_TIMER_COUNT.load(Ordering::SeqCst) == 0 {
-    //         unsafe {
-    //             core::arch::asm!("sti", "hlt", "cli", options(nomem, nostack));
-    //         }
-    //     }
-
-    //     self.stop_timer();
-    // }
-
     pub fn id(&self) -> u32 {
         self.id
     }

src/arch/x86_64/mod.rs

@@ -132,37 +132,6 @@ pub fn init_interrupt_controller(
     })
 }
 
-// #[derive(Debug)]
-// pub enum TimerError {
-//     DurationOverflow,
-// }
-
-// impl InterruptController {
-//     pub fn delay(&self, duration: core::time::Duration) -> Result<(), TimerError> {
-//         let nanoseconds = duration.as_nanos();
-
-//         let ticks = (nanoseconds
-//             .checked_mul(self.local_timer_frequency as u128)
-//             .ok_or(TimerError::DurationOverflow)?
-//             + 999_999_999)
-//             / 1_000_000_000;
-
-//         if ticks == 0 {
-//             return Ok(());
-//         }
-
-//         let mut remaining = ticks;
-
-//         while remaining > 0 {
-//             let chunk = remaining.min(u32::MAX as u128) as u32;
-//             self.local_apic.delay_ticks(chunk);
-//             remaining -= chunk as u128;
-//         }
-
-//         Ok(())
-//     }
-// }
-
 /// # Safety
 ///
 /// The caller must ensure:
@@ -202,7 +171,6 @@ pub unsafe fn enter_user(
             "mov ds, {user_data_selector:x}",
             "mov es, {user_data_selector:x}",
             "mov fs, {user_data_selector:x}",
-            "mov gs, {user_data_selector:x}",
 
             "push {user_data_selector}",
             "push {user_stack_pointer}",
@@ -227,6 +195,10 @@ pub unsafe fn enter_user(
             "xor r14, r14",
             "xor r15, r15",
 
+            // Kernel GS is CpuLocal; leave it in IA32_KERNEL_GS_BASE so
+            // syscall_entry can recover it with SWAPGS.
+            "swapgs",
+            "mov gs, {user_data_selector:x}",
             "iretq",
             user_data_selector = in(reg) gdt::USER_DATA_SELECTOR as usize,
             user_code_selector = in(reg) gdt::USER_CODE_SELECTOR as usize,

src/arch/x86_64/paging.rs

@@ -390,16 +390,6 @@ impl PageTable {
             .ok_or(UnmapError::PageNotMapped)
     }
 
-    fn discard_private_tables(
-        frames: &mut [Option<OwnedFrame>; MAX_INTERMEDIATE_LEVELS],
-        count: usize,
-        allocator: &mut FrameAllocator,
-    ) {
-        for frame in frames[..count].iter_mut().rev().filter_map(Option::take) {
-            unsafe { allocator.dealloc(frame) };
-        }
-    }
-
     fn apply_user_upgrades(
         &mut self,
         upgrades: &[Option<EntryLocation>; MAX_INTERMEDIATE_LEVELS],
@@ -509,34 +499,18 @@ impl PageTable {
         let private_table_count = levels.len() - missing_depth;
         let mut private_tables: [Option<OwnedFrame>; MAX_INTERMEDIATE_LEVELS] =
             core::array::from_fn(|_| None);
-        let mut allocated_count = 0;
-
-        while allocated_count < private_table_count {
-            let private_frame = match allocator.alloc() {
-                Some(frame) => frame,
-                None => {
-                    Self::discard_private_tables(&mut private_tables, allocated_count, allocator);
-                    return Err(MapError::OutOfFrames);
-                }
-            };
-
-            if PageTableEntry::new_table(
-                private_frame.frame_address(),
-                permissions.user_accessible,
-                self.config,
-            )
-            .is_err()
-            {
-                unsafe { allocator.dealloc(private_frame) };
-                Self::discard_private_tables(&mut private_tables, allocated_count, allocator);
-                return Err(MapError::PhysicalAddressTooLarge);
-            }
-
-            private_tables[allocated_count] = Some(private_frame);
-            allocated_count += 1;
-        }
 
         let prepare_result = (|| {
+            for slot in &mut private_tables[..private_table_count] {
+                let frame = allocator.alloc().ok_or(MapError::OutOfFrames)?;
+                let address = frame.frame_address();
+                // Track ownership before validation so every error uses the same cleanup.
+                *slot = Some(frame);
+
+                PageTableEntry::new_table(address, permissions.user_accessible, self.config)
+                    .map_err(|_| MapError::PhysicalAddressTooLarge)?;
+            }
+
             for private_index in 0..private_table_count {
                 let private_frame = private_tables[private_index]
                     .as_ref()
@@ -572,7 +546,9 @@ impl PageTable {
         let publication_entry = match prepare_result {
             Ok(entry) => entry,
             Err(error) => {
-                Self::discard_private_tables(&mut private_tables, allocated_count, allocator);
+                for frame in private_tables.into_iter().rev().flatten() {
+                    unsafe { allocator.dealloc(frame) };
+                }
                 return Err(error);
             }
         };
@@ -583,10 +559,7 @@ impl PageTable {
             [publication_location.index] = publication_entry;
 
         // The published page table now owns these frames.
-        for frame in private_tables[..allocated_count]
+        for frame in private_tables.into_iter().flatten() {
-            .iter_mut()
-            .flat_map(Option::take)
-        {
             let _ = frame.into_raw();
         }
 

src/arch/x86_64/pit.rs

@@ -13,10 +13,7 @@ const BINARY: u8 = 0;
 pub const PIT_FREQUENCY: u64 = 1_193_182;
 pub const PIT_CALIBRATION_COUNT: u16 = u16::MAX;
 
-pub struct Pit;
+pub fn start_pit_one_shot(count: u16) {
-
-impl Pit {
-    pub fn start_one_shot(count: u16) {
     unsafe {
         write_u8(PIT_COMMAND, CHANNEL_0 | LOW_HIGH | MODE_0 | BINARY);
 
@@ -24,4 +21,3 @@ impl Pit {
         write_u8(PIT_CHANNEL_0, (count >> 8) as u8);
     }
 }
-}

src/arch/x86_64/syscall.rs

@@ -44,6 +44,10 @@ pub fn init(cpu_local: *const CpuLocal) {
         write_msr(IA32_FMASK, RFLAGS_MASK);
         write_msr(IA32_GS_BASE, 0);
         write_msr(IA32_KERNEL_GS_BASE, cpu_local as u64);
+
+        // Kernel code always runs with GS pointing at CpuLocal. User entry
+        // swaps this into IA32_KERNEL_GS_BASE before transitioning to ring 3.
+        asm!("swapgs", options(nostack, preserves_flags));
     }
 }
 
@@ -103,7 +107,7 @@ unsafe extern "C" fn syscall_entry() {
 }
 
 extern "C" fn syscall_dispatch(frame: &mut SyscallFrame) {
-    let ret = crate::task::syscall::handle(
+    let ret = crate::syscall::handle(
         frame.rax, frame.rdi, frame.rsi, frame.rdx, frame.r10, frame.r8, frame.r9,
     );
 

src/arch/x86_64/timer.rs

@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ use crate::{
         io_apic::IoApic,
         x86_64::{
             interrupts::enable_interrupts,
-            pit::{PIT_CALIBRATION_COUNT, PIT_FREQUENCY, Pit},
+            pit::{PIT_CALIBRATION_COUNT, PIT_FREQUENCY, start_pit_one_shot},
         },
     },
     platform::acpi::IsaIrqRoute,
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ pub fn calibrate_local_apic(
         .map_err(|_| TimerCalibrationError::IoApicNotHandled)?;
     local_apic.start_calibration_counter();
 
-    Pit::start_one_shot(PIT_CALIBRATION_COUNT);
+    start_pit_one_shot(PIT_CALIBRATION_COUNT);
 
     enable_interrupts();
 

src/boot/limine.rs

@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
 use ::limine as limine_api;
 use limine::paging::PagingMode;
-use limine::request::{PagingModeRequest, RsdpRequest};
+use limine::request::{ExecutableCmdlineRequest, ModulesRequest, PagingModeRequest, RsdpRequest};
 
 use limine_api::request::{ExecutableAddressRequest, HhdmRequest, MemmapRequest};
 use limine_api::{BaseRevision, RequestsEndMarker, RequestsStartMarker};
 
 use crate::memory::{
-    KernelMemoryLayout, KernelSegment, MemoryMap, MemoryRegion, MemoryRegionKind, PagePermissions,
+    BootString, InitramfsImage, KernelMemoryLayout, KernelSegment, MemoryMap, MemoryRegion,
-    PhysicalAddr, VirtualAddr,
+    MemoryRegionKind, PagePermissions, PhysicalAddr, VirtualAddr,
 };
 
 /// Sets the base revision to the latest revision supported by the crate.
@@ -22,6 +22,14 @@ static BASE_REVISION: BaseRevision = BaseRevision::new();
 #[unsafe(link_section = ".requests")]
 static KERNEL_ADDRESS_REQUEST: ExecutableAddressRequest = ExecutableAddressRequest::new();
 
+#[used]
+#[unsafe(link_section = ".requests")]
+static KERNEL_CMDLINE_REQUEST: ExecutableCmdlineRequest = ExecutableCmdlineRequest::new();
+
+#[used]
+#[unsafe(link_section = ".requests")]
+static KERNEL_MODULE_REQUEST: ModulesRequest = ModulesRequest::new();
+
 #[used]
 #[unsafe(link_section = ".requests")]
 static HHDM_REQUEST: HhdmRequest = HhdmRequest::new();
@@ -58,8 +66,12 @@ unsafe extern "C" {
     static __data_end: u64;
 }
 
+const MAX_COMMAND_LINE_LENGTH: usize = 512;
+
 pub struct BootInfo {
     pub kernel_layout: KernelMemoryLayout,
+    pub command_line: BootString<MAX_COMMAND_LINE_LENGTH>,
+    pub initramfs: InitramfsImage,
     pub hhdm_offset: usize,
     pub memory_map: MemoryMap,
     pub rsdp: VirtualAddr,
@@ -75,6 +87,9 @@ impl BootInfo {
 pub enum BootError {
     UnsupportedBaseRevision,
     FailedToGetKernelAddress,
+    FailedToGetKernelCmdline,
+    FailedToGetModules,
+    FailedToGetInitramfs,
     FailedToGetHHDMAddress,
     FailedToGetMemmap,
     TooManyMemoryRegions,
@@ -90,10 +105,28 @@ pub fn load_boot_info() -> Result<BootInfo, BootError> {
     let kernel_address = KERNEL_ADDRESS_REQUEST
         .response()
         .ok_or(BootError::FailedToGetKernelAddress)?;
+    let kernel_cmdline = KERNEL_CMDLINE_REQUEST
+        .response()
+        .ok_or(BootError::FailedToGetKernelCmdline)?;
+    let command_line = BootString::from_bytes(kernel_cmdline.cmdline().as_bytes());
+
+    let modules = KERNEL_MODULE_REQUEST
+        .response()
+        .ok_or(BootError::FailedToGetModules)?;
+    let initramfs = modules
+        .modules()
+        .get(0)
+        .map(|module| {
+            let start = VirtualAddr::new(module.data().as_ptr() as usize);
+            let length = module.data().len();
+            InitramfsImage { start, length }
+        })
+        .ok_or(BootError::FailedToGetInitramfs)?;
+
     let hhdm_offset = HHDM_REQUEST
         .response()
         .ok_or(BootError::FailedToGetHHDMAddress)?
-        .offset;
+        .offset as usize;
 
     let rsdp = RSDP_REQUEST.response().ok_or(BootError::FailedToGetRsdp)?;
 
@@ -204,7 +237,9 @@ pub fn load_boot_info() -> Result<BootInfo, BootError> {
                 kernel_data_segment,
             ],
         },
-        hhdm_offset: hhdm_offset as usize,
+        command_line,
+        initramfs,
+        hhdm_offset,
         memory_map,
         rsdp: VirtualAddr::new(rsdp.address as usize),
     })

src/debug/serial.rs

@@ -160,6 +160,12 @@ pub fn init() -> Result<(), SerialPortError> {
     com1().init()
 }
 
+pub fn write_bytes(bytes: &[u8]) {
+    for byte in bytes {
+        com1().write_byte(*byte);
+    }
+}
+
 pub fn print(args: core::fmt::Arguments) {
     use core::fmt::Write;
 

src/format/cpio.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+// CPIO newc
+
+#[repr(C)]
+struct Header {
+    pub c_magic: [u8; 6],
+    pub c_ino: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_mode: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_uid: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_gid: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_nlink: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_mtime: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_filesize: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_devmajor: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_devminor: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_rdevmajor: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_rdevminor: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_namesize: [u8; 8],
+    pub c_check: [u8; 8],
+}
+
+impl Header {
+    pub fn from_bytes(bytes: &[u8]) -> Option<Self> {
+        if bytes.len() < core::mem::size_of::<Header>() {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let header: Header = unsafe { core::ptr::read(bytes.as_ptr() as *const Header) };
+
+        if header.c_magic != *b"070701" {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        Some(header)
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn find_file<'a>(archive: &'a [u8], target: &str) -> Option<&'a [u8]> {
+    let mut offset = 0;
+
+    while offset + core::mem::size_of::<Header>() <= archive.len() {
+        let header = Header::from_bytes(&archive[offset..])?;
+        let header_start = offset;
+        offset += core::mem::size_of::<Header>();
+
+        let file_len =
+            usize::from_str_radix(core::str::from_utf8(&header.c_filesize).ok()?, 16).ok()?;
+        let name_len =
+            usize::from_str_radix(core::str::from_utf8(&header.c_namesize).ok()?, 16).ok()?;
+
+        if offset + name_len > archive.len() {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let name_bytes = &archive[offset..offset + name_len];
+        let name = core::str::from_utf8(name_bytes)
+            .ok()?
+            .trim_end_matches('\0');
+
+        if name == "TRAILER!!!" {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let data_start = header_start + ((core::mem::size_of::<Header>() + name_len + 3) & !3);
+        if data_start + file_len > archive.len() {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        if name == target {
+            return Some(&archive[data_start..data_start + file_len]);
+        }
+
+        offset = data_start + ((file_len + 3) & !3);
+    }
+
+    None
+}

src/format/elf.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,423 @@
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum ElfIsa {
+    None,
+    Sparc,
+    X86,
+    Mips,
+    Ppc,
+    Arm,
+    SuperH,
+    Ia64,
+    Amd64,
+    AArch64,
+    Riscv,
+}
+
+impl ElfIsa {
+    fn from_u16(value: u16) -> Result<Self, ElfError> {
+        match value {
+            0x00 => Ok(Self::None),
+            0x02 => Ok(Self::Sparc),
+            0x03 => Ok(Self::X86),
+            0x08 => Ok(Self::Mips),
+            0x14 => Ok(Self::Ppc),
+            0x28 => Ok(Self::Arm),
+            0x2A => Ok(Self::SuperH),
+            0x32 => Ok(Self::Ia64),
+            0x3E => Ok(Self::Amd64),
+            0xB7 => Ok(Self::AArch64),
+            0xF3 => Ok(Self::Riscv),
+            _ => Err(ElfError::InvalidElf),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum ElfClass {
+    Elf32,
+    Elf64,
+}
+
+impl ElfClass {
+    fn from_u8(value: u8) -> Result<Self, ElfError> {
+        match value {
+            1 => Ok(Self::Elf32),
+            2 => Ok(Self::Elf64),
+            _ => Err(ElfError::InvalidElf),
+        }
+    }
+
+    const fn header_size(self) -> u16 {
+        match self {
+            Self::Elf32 => 52,
+            Self::Elf64 => 64,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum Endianness {
+    Little,
+    Big,
+}
+
+impl Endianness {
+    fn from_u8(value: u8) -> Result<Self, ElfError> {
+        match value {
+            1 => Ok(Self::Little),
+            2 => Ok(Self::Big),
+            _ => Err(ElfError::InvalidElf),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[repr(u16)]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum ElfType {
+    Relocatable = 1,
+    Executable = 2,
+    SharedObject = 3,
+    Core = 4,
+}
+
+impl ElfType {
+    fn from_u16(value: u16) -> Result<Self, ElfError> {
+        match value {
+            1 => Ok(Self::Relocatable),
+            2 => Ok(Self::Executable),
+            3 => Ok(Self::SharedObject),
+            4 => Ok(Self::Core),
+            _ => Err(ElfError::InvalidElf),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+#[allow(unused)]
+pub struct ElfHeader {
+    magic: [u8; 4],
+    pub class: ElfClass,
+    endianness: Endianness,
+    version: u8,
+    os_abi: u8,
+    _reserved: [u8; 8],
+    pub object_type: ElfType,
+    pub machine: ElfIsa,
+    version_1: u32,
+    entry: u64,                     // 2115136
+    program_header_offset: u64,     // 64
+    section_header_offset: u64,     // 2759752
+    flags: u32,                     // 0
+    header_size: u16,               // 64
+    program_header_entry_size: u16, // 56
+    program_header_count: u16,      // 6
+    section_header_entry_size: u16, // 64
+    section_header_count: u16,      // 17
+    section_name_index: u16,        // 15
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub enum ElfError {
+    InvalidElf,
+}
+
+impl ElfHeader {
+    pub fn parse(bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<Self, ElfError> {
+        let mut reader = Reader::new(bytes);
+
+        let magic = reader.read_array()?;
+        if magic != *b"\x7fELF" {
+            return Err(ElfError::InvalidElf);
+        }
+
+        let class = ElfClass::from_u8(reader.read_u8()?)?;
+        let endianness = Endianness::from_u8(reader.read_u8()?)?;
+        reader.set_endianness(endianness);
+
+        let version = reader.read_u8()?;
+        let os_abi = reader.read_u8()?;
+        let reserved = reader.read_array()?;
+        let object_type = ElfType::from_u16(reader.read_u16()?)?;
+        let machine = ElfIsa::from_u16(reader.read_u16()?)?;
+        let version_1 = reader.read_u32()?;
+        let entry = reader.read_word(class)?;
+        let program_header_offset = reader.read_word(class)?;
+        let section_header_offset = reader.read_word(class)?;
+        let flags = reader.read_u32()?;
+        let header_size = reader.read_u16()?;
+        let program_header_entry_size = reader.read_u16()?;
+        let program_header_count = reader.read_u16()?;
+        let section_header_entry_size = reader.read_u16()?;
+        let section_header_count = reader.read_u16()?;
+        let section_name_index = reader.read_u16()?;
+
+        if header_size != class.header_size() {
+            return Err(ElfError::InvalidElf);
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            magic,
+            class,
+            endianness,
+            version,
+            os_abi,
+            _reserved: reserved,
+            object_type,
+            machine,
+            version_1,
+            entry,
+            program_header_offset,
+            section_header_offset,
+            flags,
+            header_size,
+            program_header_entry_size,
+            program_header_count,
+            section_header_entry_size,
+            section_header_count,
+            section_name_index,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+#[repr(u32)]
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum ProgramHeaderType {
+    Null = 0,
+    Load = 1,
+    Dynamic = 2,
+    Interpreter = 3,
+    Note = 4,
+    Shlib = 5,
+    Phdr = 6,
+    GnuStack = 0x6474e551,
+    Relro = 0x6474e552,
+    Other(u32),
+}
+
+impl ProgramHeaderType {
+    fn from_u32(value: u32) -> Self {
+        match value {
+            0 => Self::Null,
+            1 => Self::Load,
+            2 => Self::Dynamic,
+            3 => Self::Interpreter,
+            4 => Self::Note,
+            5 => Self::Shlib,
+            6 => Self::Phdr,
+            0x6474e551 => Self::GnuStack,
+            0x6474e552 => Self::Relro,
+            _ => Self::Other(value),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct ProgramHeader {
+    pub segment_type: ProgramHeaderType,
+    pub flags: u32,
+    pub file_offset: u64,
+    pub virtual_address: u64,
+    _physical_address: u64,
+    pub file_size: u64,
+    pub memory_size: u64,
+    pub alignment: u64,
+}
+
+impl ProgramHeader {
+    pub fn parse(bytes: &[u8], class: ElfClass, endianness: Endianness) -> Result<Self, ElfError> {
+        let mut reader = Reader::new(bytes);
+        reader.set_endianness(endianness);
+
+        let segment_type = ProgramHeaderType::from_u32(reader.read_u32()?);
+
+        let flags = if class == ElfClass::Elf64 {
+            reader.read_u32()?
+        } else {
+            0
+        };
+
+        let file_offset = reader.read_word(class)?;
+        let virtual_address = reader.read_word(class)?;
+        let physical_address = reader.read_word(class)?;
+        let file_size = reader.read_word(class)?;
+        let memory_size = reader.read_word(class)?;
+
+        let flags = if class == ElfClass::Elf32 {
+            reader.read_u32()?
+        } else {
+            flags
+        };
+
+        let alignment = reader.read_word(class)?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            segment_type,
+            flags,
+            file_offset,
+            virtual_address,
+            _physical_address: physical_address,
+            file_size,
+            memory_size,
+            alignment,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct Elf<'a> {
+    bytes: &'a [u8],
+    header: ElfHeader,
+}
+
+impl<'a> Elf<'a> {
+    pub fn parse(bytes: &'a [u8]) -> Result<Self, ElfError> {
+        let header = ElfHeader::parse(bytes)?;
+
+        Ok(Self { bytes, header })
+    }
+
+    pub fn program_headers(&self) -> Result<ProgramHeaders<'_>, ElfError> {
+        let offset =
+            usize::try_from(self.header.program_header_offset).map_err(|_| ElfError::InvalidElf)?;
+        let entry_size = usize::from(self.header.program_header_entry_size);
+        let count = usize::from(self.header.program_header_count);
+
+        let expected_entry_size = match self.header.class {
+            ElfClass::Elf32 => 32,
+            ElfClass::Elf64 => 56,
+        };
+
+        if entry_size != expected_entry_size {
+            return Err(ElfError::InvalidElf);
+        }
+
+        let table_size = entry_size.checked_mul(count).ok_or(ElfError::InvalidElf)?;
+        let table_end = offset.checked_add(table_size).ok_or(ElfError::InvalidElf)?;
+        let bytes = self
+            .bytes
+            .get(offset..table_end)
+            .ok_or(ElfError::InvalidElf)?;
+
+        Ok(ProgramHeaders {
+            bytes,
+            class: self.header.class,
+            endianness: self.header.endianness,
+            entry_size,
+            remaining: count,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn bytes(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        self.bytes
+    }
+
+    pub fn machine(&self) -> ElfIsa {
+        self.header.machine
+    }
+
+    pub fn entry(&self) -> usize {
+        self.header.entry as usize
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct ProgramHeaders<'a> {
+    bytes: &'a [u8],
+    class: ElfClass,
+    endianness: Endianness,
+    entry_size: usize,
+    remaining: usize,
+}
+
+impl<'a> Iterator for ProgramHeaders<'a> {
+    type Item = Result<ProgramHeader, ElfError>;
+
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        if self.remaining == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let entry = match self.bytes.get(..self.entry_size) {
+            Some(entry) => entry,
+            None => {
+                self.remaining = 0;
+                return None;
+            }
+        };
+
+        self.bytes = &self.bytes[self.entry_size..];
+        self.remaining -= 1;
+
+        Some(ProgramHeader::parse(entry, self.class, self.endianness))
+    }
+
+    fn size_hint(&self) -> (usize, Option<usize>) {
+        (self.remaining, Some(self.remaining))
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExactSizeIterator for ProgramHeaders<'_> {}
+
+struct Reader<'a> {
+    bytes: &'a [u8],
+    offset: usize,
+    endianness: Endianness,
+}
+
+impl<'a> Reader<'a> {
+    const fn new(bytes: &'a [u8]) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            bytes,
+            offset: 0,
+            endianness: Endianness::Little,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn set_endianness(&mut self, endianness: Endianness) {
+        self.endianness = endianness;
+    }
+
+    fn read_array<const N: usize>(&mut self) -> Result<[u8; N], ElfError> {
+        let end = self.offset.checked_add(N).ok_or(ElfError::InvalidElf)?;
+        let bytes = self
+            .bytes
+            .get(self.offset..end)
+            .ok_or(ElfError::InvalidElf)?;
+        self.offset = end;
+
+        bytes.try_into().map_err(|_| ElfError::InvalidElf)
+    }
+
+    fn read_u8(&mut self) -> Result<u8, ElfError> {
+        Ok(self.read_array::<1>()?[0])
+    }
+
+    fn read_u16(&mut self) -> Result<u16, ElfError> {
+        let bytes = self.read_array()?;
+        Ok(match self.endianness {
+            Endianness::Little => u16::from_le_bytes(bytes),
+            Endianness::Big => u16::from_be_bytes(bytes),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn read_u32(&mut self) -> Result<u32, ElfError> {
+        let bytes = self.read_array()?;
+        Ok(match self.endianness {
+            Endianness::Little => u32::from_le_bytes(bytes),
+            Endianness::Big => u32::from_be_bytes(bytes),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn read_u64(&mut self) -> Result<u64, ElfError> {
+        let bytes = self.read_array()?;
+        Ok(match self.endianness {
+            Endianness::Little => u64::from_le_bytes(bytes),
+            Endianness::Big => u64::from_be_bytes(bytes),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn read_word(&mut self, class: ElfClass) -> Result<u64, ElfError> {
+        match class {
+            ElfClass::Elf32 => Ok(u64::from(self.read_u32()?)),
+            ElfClass::Elf64 => self.read_u64(),
+        }
+    }
+}

src/format/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+pub mod cpio;
+pub mod elf;

src/main.rs

@@ -6,15 +6,17 @@
 mod arch;
 mod boot;
 mod debug;
+mod format;
 mod memory;
 mod platform;
+mod syscall;
 mod task;
 
+use core::arch::global_asm;
+
 use crate::{
     debug::serial,
-    memory::{
+    memory::{AddressSpace, KernelStackPool, MemoryRegionKind, UserStack},
-        AddressSpace, KernelStackPool, MemoryRegionKind, PagePermissions, UserStack, VirtualAddr,
-    },
     task::tcb::Tcb,
 };
 
@@ -117,6 +119,9 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn kernel_main(handoff: *mut KernelHandoff) -> ! {
         MemoryRegionKind::BootloaderReclaimable,
     );
 
+    let init_code = format::cpio::find_file(boot_info.initramfs.data(), "init.elf")
+        .expect("Failed to load init program from initramfs");
+
     println!("Initializing local ACPI...",);
 
     let acpi = platform::acpi::init(&boot_info, direct_map).expect("failed to initialize ACPI");
@@ -134,69 +139,33 @@ pub unsafe extern "C" fn kernel_main(handoff: *mut KernelHandoff) -> ! {
         arch::init_interrupt_controller(&madt, &mut allocator, &mut address_space)
             .expect("failed to initialize interrupt controller");
 
-    println!("Creating user address space...");
+    let user_kernel_stack = kernel_stack_pool
-
-    let task_kernel_stack = kernel_stack_pool
         .allocate(&mut address_space, &mut allocator)
-        .expect("failed to allocate user task stack");
+        .expect("failed to allocate task kernel stack");
 
-    let mut user_addr_space = address_space
+    let mut user_address_space = address_space
         .new_user(&mut allocator)
         .expect("failed to create user address space");
 
-    println!("Allocating user stack...");
+    let image = task::loader::load_elf(
-
+        init_code,
-    let user_stack = UserStack::allocate(&mut user_addr_space, &mut allocator)
+        &mut user_address_space,
-        .expect("failed to allocate user stack");
-
-    let user_instruction_pointer = VirtualAddr::new(0x8000);
-    let user_code_page = allocator
-        .alloc()
-        .expect("failed to allocate user code page")
-        .frame_address();
-    user_addr_space
-        .map(
-            user_code_page.start_address(),
-            user_instruction_pointer,
-            PagePermissions::new(true, true, true),
         &mut allocator,
-            memory::CachePolicy::WriteBack,
+        direct_map,
-        )
-        .expect("failed to map user code page");
-
-    unsafe {
-        let user_code: &[u8] = &[
-            0xCC, // INT3
-            0x0F, 0x05, // SYSCALL
-            0xEB, 0xFE, // JMP -2 (loop forever if exit returns)
-        ];
-
-        let user_code_virtual = direct_map
-            .translate(user_code_page.start_address())
-            .unwrap();
-
-        println!("Copying user code to {:#X}", user_code_virtual.as_usize());
-
-        core::ptr::copy_nonoverlapping(
-            user_code.as_ptr(),
-            user_code_virtual.as_mut_ptr::<u8>(),
-            user_code.len(),
     );
 
-        println!("Activating user address space...");
+    let user_stack = UserStack::allocate(&mut user_address_space, &mut allocator)
-
+        .expect("failed to allocate user stack");
-        let user_tcb = Tcb::new_user(
+    let task = Tcb::new_user(
-            0,
+        0, // overwritten by add_task for now
-            user_addr_space,
+        user_address_space,
-            task_kernel_stack,
+        user_kernel_stack,
-            user_instruction_pointer,
+        image.expect("Failed to load elf"),
         user_stack.top(),
     );
 
-        println!("Running first user task {user_tcb:?}...");
+    task::scheduler::add_task(task).expect("scheduler is full");
-
+    task::scheduler::start();
-        task::tcb::run_first_user(&user_tcb);
-    }
 
     hcf();
 }

src/memory/address_space.rs

@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ use crate::{
     arch::{PageTable, PageTableCreateError, PageTableMapError, PageTableUnmapError, PagingConfig},
     memory::{
         CachePolicy, DirectMap, FRAME_SIZE, FrameAddr, FrameAllocator, KernelMemoryLayout,
-        MemoryRegion, MemoryRegionKind, PagePermissions, PhysicalAddr, VirtualAddr,
+        MemoryRegion, MemoryRegionKind, PagePermissions, PhysicalAddr, USER_SPACE_END, VirtualAddr,
     },
 };
 
@@ -113,13 +113,18 @@ impl AddressSpace {
             // undermind the permissions of the explicitly mapped kernel image
             if matches!(
                 region.kind,
-                MemoryRegionKind::Reserved
+                MemoryRegionKind::Reserved | MemoryRegionKind::BadMemory
-                    | MemoryRegionKind::BadMemory
-                    | MemoryRegionKind::KernelAndModules
             ) {
                 continue;
             }
 
+            // we shouldnt HHDM the kernel image, but we should map modules
+            if region.kind == MemoryRegionKind::KernelAndModules
+                && region.start == layout.segments[0].physical_base
+            {
+                continue;
+            }
+
             let cache_policy = if matches!(
                 region.kind,
                 MemoryRegionKind::MappedReserved | MemoryRegionKind::Framebuffer
@@ -195,7 +200,7 @@ impl AddressSpace {
         let global = self.kind == AddressSpaceKind::Kernel;
 
         if self.kind == AddressSpaceKind::User {
-            if virtual_addr.as_usize() >= 0x0000_8000_0000_0000 {
+            if virtual_addr.as_usize() >= USER_SPACE_END.as_usize() {
                 return Err(MapError::InvalidUserAddress);
             }
 

src/memory/mod.rs

@@ -1,12 +1,48 @@
 mod address_space;
 mod frame;
 mod stack;
+mod user;
+
+use core::ops::Add;
 
 #[allow(unused)]
 pub use address_space::{AddressSpace, AddressSpaceCreateError, MapError, UnmapError};
 pub use frame::{FRAME_SIZE, FrameAddr, FrameAllocator, OwnedFrame};
 #[allow(unused)]
 pub use stack::{KernelStack, KernelStackPool, StackCreateError, UserStack};
+#[allow(unused)]
+pub use user::*;
+
+pub struct BootString<const N: usize> {
+    bytes: [u8; N],
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+impl<const N: usize> BootString<N> {
+    pub fn from_bytes(bytes: &[u8]) -> Self {
+        let len = bytes.len();
+        let mut boot_string = Self { bytes: [0; N], len };
+        boot_string.bytes[..len].copy_from_slice(bytes);
+        boot_string
+    }
+
+    pub fn as_str(&self) -> &str {
+        core::str::from_utf8(&self.bytes[..self.len]).unwrap()
+    }
+}
+
+const MAX_MODULE_PATH_LENGTH: usize = 256;
+
+pub struct InitramfsImage {
+    pub start: VirtualAddr,
+    pub length: usize,
+}
+
+impl InitramfsImage {
+    pub fn data(&self) -> &[u8] {
+        unsafe { core::slice::from_raw_parts(self.start.as_ptr(), self.length) }
+    }
+}
 
 pub struct KernelSegment {
     pub physical_base: PhysicalAddr,
@@ -72,6 +108,14 @@ impl VirtualAddr {
     }
 }
 
+impl Add<usize> for VirtualAddr {
+    type Output = Self;
+
+    fn add(self, rhs: usize) -> Self::Output {
+        Self(self.0 + rhs)
+    }
+}
+
 #[repr(u8)]
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub enum MemoryRegionKind {

src/memory/user.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+use crate::{memory::VirtualAddr, syscall::Status};
+
+pub const USER_SPACE_END: VirtualAddr = VirtualAddr::new(0x0000_8000_0000_0000);
+
+pub fn copy_from_user(src: VirtualAddr, dst: &mut [u8]) -> Result<(), Status> {
+    // TODO: guard against unmapped pages
+    let end = src
+        .as_usize()
+        .checked_add(dst.len())
+        .ok_or(Status::BadAddress)?;
+    if end > USER_SPACE_END.as_usize() {
+        return Err(Status::BadAddress);
+    }
+
+    unsafe {
+        core::ptr::copy_nonoverlapping(src.as_ptr(), dst.as_mut_ptr(), dst.len());
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn copy_to_user(dst: VirtualAddr, src: &[u8]) -> Result<(), Status> {
+    let end = dst
+        .as_usize()
+        .checked_add(src.len())
+        .ok_or(Status::BadAddress)?;
+    if end > USER_SPACE_END.as_usize() {
+        return Err(Status::BadAddress);
+    }
+
+    unsafe {
+        core::ptr::copy_nonoverlapping(src.as_ptr(), dst.as_mut_ptr::<u8>(), src.len());
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn copy_val_to_user<T: Copy>(dst: VirtualAddr, val: &T) -> Result<(), Status> {
+    if dst.as_usize() % core::mem::align_of::<T>() != 0 {
+        return Err(Status::InvalidArgument);
+    }
+    let end = dst
+        .as_usize()
+        .checked_add(core::mem::size_of::<T>())
+        .ok_or(Status::BadAddress)?;
+    if end > USER_SPACE_END.as_usize() {
+        return Err(Status::BadAddress);
+    }
+
+    unsafe {
+        (dst.as_mut_ptr::<T>()).write(*val);
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn copy_val_from_user<T: Copy>(src: VirtualAddr) -> Result<T, Status> {
+    if src.as_usize() % core::mem::align_of::<T>() != 0 {
+        return Err(Status::InvalidArgument);
+    }
+    let end = src
+        .as_usize()
+        .checked_add(core::mem::size_of::<T>())
+        .ok_or(Status::BadAddress)?;
+    if end > USER_SPACE_END.as_usize() {
+        return Err(Status::BadAddress);
+    }
+
+    let val = unsafe { src.as_ptr::<T>().read() };
+    Ok(val)
+}

src/syscall/mod.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+mod table;
+
+use table::*;
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(u64)]
+pub enum Status {
+    // Status::Success = 0
+    InvalidArgument = 1,   // EINVAL
+    BadAddress = 2,        // EFAULT
+    BadFileDescriptor = 3, // EBADF
+    NoSuchTask = 4,        // ESRCH
+    OutOfMemory = 5,       // ENOMEM
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(u64)]
+pub enum SyscallNumber {
+    Yield = 1,
+    Exit = 2,
+    Write = 3,
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<u64> for SyscallNumber {
+    type Error = Status;
+    fn try_from(val: u64) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match val {
+            1 => Ok(Self::Yield),
+            2 => Ok(Self::Exit),
+            3 => Ok(Self::Write),
+            _ => Err(Status::InvalidArgument),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn handle(num: u64, arg0: u64, arg1: u64, arg2: u64, arg3: u64, _arg4: u64, _arg5: u64) -> u64 {
+    let result = (|| -> Result<(), Status> {
+        let syscall = SyscallNumber::try_from(num)?;
+        match syscall {
+            SyscallNumber::Yield => sys_yield(),
+            SyscallNumber::Exit => sys_exit(arg0 as usize),
+            SyscallNumber::Write => {
+                sys_write(arg0 as usize, arg1 as usize, arg2 as usize, arg3 as usize)
+            }
+        }
+    })();
+
+    match result {
+        Ok(()) => 0,
+        Err(err) => err as u64,
+    }
+}

src/syscall/table.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+use crate::memory::{VirtualAddr, copy_from_user, copy_val_to_user};
+
+use super::Status;
+
+pub fn sys_yield() -> Result<(), Status> {
+    crate::task::scheduler::yield_current();
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn sys_exit(exit_code: usize) -> ! {
+    crate::task::scheduler::exit_current(exit_code);
+}
+
+pub fn sys_write(fd: usize, buf_ptr: usize, len: usize, out_ptr: usize) -> Result<(), Status> {
+    if fd != 1 && fd != 2 {
+        return Err(Status::BadFileDescriptor);
+    }
+
+    let mut chunk = [0u8; 128];
+    let mut written = 0;
+    while written < len {
+        let n = (len - written).min(chunk.len());
+        copy_from_user(VirtualAddr::new(buf_ptr + written), &mut chunk[..n])?;
+        crate::debug::serial::write_bytes(&chunk[..n]);
+        written += n;
+    }
+
+    if out_ptr != 0 {
+        copy_val_to_user(VirtualAddr::new(out_ptr), &written)?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}

src/task/loader.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
+use crate::{
+    format,
+    memory::{
+        self, AddressSpace, DirectMap, FRAME_SIZE, FrameAllocator, OwnedFrame, PagePermissions,
+        VirtualAddr,
+    },
+    println,
+};
+
+const MAX_LOAD_SEGMENTS: usize = 32;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct LoadedRegion {
+    start: VirtualAddr,
+    mapped_pages: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct LoadedImage {
+    pub entry: VirtualAddr,
+    regions: [LoadedRegion; MAX_LOAD_SEGMENTS],
+    region_count: usize,
+}
+
+impl LoadedImage {
+    /// # Safety
+    /// The supplied address space must contain this image's original mappings.
+    /// Its frames must be exclusively owned by this image and no longer in use.
+    pub unsafe fn destroy(self, address_space: &mut AddressSpace, allocator: &mut FrameAllocator) {
+        for region in self.regions[..self.region_count].iter().rev() {
+            for page in (0..region.mapped_pages).rev() {
+                let address = VirtualAddr::new(region.start.as_usize() + page * FRAME_SIZE);
+                let frame = unsafe {
+                    address_space
+                        .unmap(address, allocator)
+                        .expect("loaded image mapping was unexpectedly missing")
+                };
+                unsafe { allocator.dealloc(OwnedFrame::from_raw(frame)) };
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub enum ElfLoadError {
+    AddressTranslationFailed,
+    FailedToMapSegment,
+    AddressOverflow,
+    InvalidStack,
+    OutOfMemory,
+    InvalidElf,
+    TooManyLoadSegments,
+}
+
+#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
+fn is_loadable(elf: &format::elf::Elf) -> bool {
+    // on x86_64, we only support ELFs that are either 32 bit x86 or 64 bit x86
+    matches!(
+        elf.machine(),
+        format::elf::ElfIsa::X86 | format::elf::ElfIsa::Amd64
+    )
+}
+
+#[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
+fn is_loadable(elf: &format::elf::Elf) -> bool {
+    false
+}
+
+pub fn load_elf(
+    bytes: &[u8],
+    user_address_space: &mut AddressSpace,
+    allocator: &mut FrameAllocator,
+    direct_map: DirectMap,
+) -> Result<LoadedImage, ElfLoadError> {
+    let program = format::elf::Elf::parse(bytes).map_err(|_| ElfLoadError::InvalidElf)?;
+    if !is_loadable(&program) {
+        return Err(ElfLoadError::InvalidElf);
+    }
+
+    let mut image = LoadedImage {
+        entry: VirtualAddr::new(program.entry()),
+        regions: core::array::from_fn(|_| LoadedRegion {
+            start: VirtualAddr::new(0),
+            mapped_pages: 0,
+        }),
+        region_count: 0,
+    };
+
+    let result = (|| {
+        for header in program
+            .program_headers()
+            .map_err(|_| ElfLoadError::InvalidElf)?
+        {
+            println!("Processing program header: {:?}", header);
+            let header = header.map_err(|_| ElfLoadError::InvalidElf)?;
+
+            if header.file_size > header.memory_size {
+                return Err(ElfLoadError::InvalidElf);
+            }
+
+            match header.segment_type {
+                format::elf::ProgramHeaderType::Load => {
+                    if image.region_count == MAX_LOAD_SEGMENTS {
+                        return Err(ElfLoadError::TooManyLoadSegments);
+                    }
+                    // TODO: give a fuck about alignment
+                    // TODO: handle program segments that overlap
+                    let segment_start = header.virtual_address as usize;
+                    if (program.entry() >= segment_start
+                        && program.entry() < segment_start + header.memory_size as usize)
+                        && header.flags & 0x01 == 0
+                    {
+                        // entry is within NX segment
+                        return Err(ElfLoadError::InvalidElf);
+                    }
+
+                    let page_start = segment_start & !(FRAME_SIZE - 1);
+                    let page_offset = segment_start - page_start;
+
+                    let mapped_length = page_offset
+                        .checked_add(header.memory_size as usize)
+                        .ok_or(ElfLoadError::AddressOverflow)?
+                        .div_ceil(FRAME_SIZE)
+                        * FRAME_SIZE;
+
+                    let frame_count = mapped_length / FRAME_SIZE;
+
+                    let executable = header.flags & 0x01 != 0;
+                    let writable = header.flags & 0x02 != 0;
+                    // TODO: support only-executable segments
+                    // let readable = header.flags & 0x04 != 0;
+
+                    let region = &mut image.regions[image.region_count];
+                    region.start = VirtualAddr::new(page_start);
+                    image.region_count += 1;
+
+                    for i in 0..frame_count {
+                        let frame = allocator.alloc().ok_or(ElfLoadError::OutOfMemory)?;
+
+                        println!(
+                            "Mapping code frame: {:X?} to {:X?}",
+                            frame,
+                            page_start + i * FRAME_SIZE
+                        );
+
+                        if user_address_space
+                            .map(
+                                frame.frame_address().start_address(),
+                                VirtualAddr::new(page_start + i * FRAME_SIZE),
+                                PagePermissions::new(writable, executable, true),
+                                allocator,
+                                memory::CachePolicy::WriteBack,
+                            )
+                            .is_err()
+                        {
+                            unsafe { allocator.dealloc(frame) };
+                            return Err(ElfLoadError::FailedToMapSegment);
+                        }
+
+                        let _ = frame.into_raw();
+                        region.mapped_pages += 1;
+                    }
+
+                    let mut copied = 0;
+
+                    while copied < header.file_size as usize {
+                        let destination = VirtualAddr::new(segment_start + copied);
+                        let physical = user_address_space
+                            .to_physical(destination)
+                            .ok_or(ElfLoadError::AddressTranslationFailed)?;
+                        let direct_mapped = direct_map
+                            .translate(physical)
+                            .ok_or(ElfLoadError::AddressTranslationFailed)?;
+
+                        let page_remaining = FRAME_SIZE - destination.as_usize() % FRAME_SIZE;
+                        let copy_length = page_remaining.min(header.file_size as usize - copied);
+
+                        unsafe {
+                            core::ptr::copy_nonoverlapping(
+                                program
+                                    .bytes()
+                                    .as_ptr()
+                                    .add(header.file_offset as usize + copied),
+                                direct_mapped.as_mut_ptr(),
+                                copy_length,
+                            );
+                        }
+
+                        copied += copy_length;
+                    }
+                }
+                format::elf::ProgramHeaderType::GnuStack => {
+                    // if the stack is NOT R/W NX, we refuse to map it
+                    if header.flags != 6 {
+                        return Err(ElfLoadError::InvalidStack);
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(())
+    })();
+
+    if let Err(error) = result {
+        // Only pages created by this load are recorded; none have been handed to a task.
+        unsafe { image.destroy(user_address_space, allocator) };
+        return Err(error);
+    }
+
+    Ok(image)
+}

src/task/mod.rs

@@ -1,2 +1,3 @@
-pub mod syscall;
+pub mod loader;
+pub mod scheduler;
 pub mod tcb;

src/task/scheduler.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,230 @@
+use core::cell::UnsafeCell;
+
+use crate::{
+    arch::ThreadContext,
+    memory::{AddressSpace, VirtualAddr},
+    println,
+    task::tcb::{ExitReason, Tcb, ThreadState},
+};
+
+const MAX_TASKS: usize = 32;
+
+type TaskId = usize;
+
+struct Scheduler {
+    current: Option<TaskId>,
+    tasks: [Option<Tcb>; MAX_TASKS],
+    ready: ReadyQueue,
+}
+
+impl Scheduler {
+    const fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            current: None,
+            tasks: [const { None }; MAX_TASKS],
+            ready: ReadyQueue::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn make_switch(&mut self, current_id: TaskId, next_id: TaskId) -> Switch {
+        assert_ne!(current_id, next_id);
+
+        let current = self.tasks[current_id].as_mut().unwrap();
+        let prev_ctx = &mut current.context as *mut ThreadContext;
+        let prev_addr_space = &current.address_space as *const AddressSpace;
+
+        let next = self.tasks[next_id].as_ref().unwrap();
+        let next_ctx = &next.context as *const ThreadContext;
+        let next_addr_space = &next.address_space as *const AddressSpace;
+        let next_kernel_stack = next.kernel_stack.top();
+
+        Switch {
+            previous_context: prev_ctx,
+            next_context: next_ctx,
+            next_address_space: next_addr_space,
+            next_kernel_stack: next_kernel_stack,
+            activate_address_space: unsafe { *next_addr_space != *prev_addr_space },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct Switch {
+    previous_context: *mut ThreadContext,
+    next_context: *const ThreadContext,
+    next_address_space: *const AddressSpace,
+    next_kernel_stack: VirtualAddr,
+    activate_address_space: bool,
+}
+
+impl Switch {
+    unsafe fn perform(self) {
+        if self.activate_address_space {
+            unsafe {
+                (&*self.next_address_space).activate();
+            }
+        }
+
+        crate::arch::set_kernel_stack(self.next_kernel_stack);
+
+        unsafe {
+            crate::arch::switch_context(self.previous_context, self.next_context);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct ReadyQueue {
+    entries: [TaskId; MAX_TASKS],
+    head: usize,
+    len: usize,
+}
+
+impl ReadyQueue {
+    pub const fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            entries: [0; MAX_TASKS],
+            head: 0,
+            len: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn push_back(&mut self, task: TaskId) -> bool {
+        if self.len == MAX_TASKS {
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        let tail = (self.head + self.len) % MAX_TASKS;
+        self.entries[tail] = task;
+        self.len += 1;
+
+        true
+    }
+
+    pub fn pop_front(&mut self) -> Option<TaskId> {
+        if self.len == 0 {
+            return None;
+        }
+
+        let task = self.entries[self.head];
+        self.head = (self.head + 1) % MAX_TASKS;
+        self.len -= 1;
+
+        Some(task)
+    }
+}
+
+struct GlobalScheduler(UnsafeCell<Scheduler>);
+
+unsafe impl Sync for GlobalScheduler {}
+
+static SCHEDULER: GlobalScheduler = GlobalScheduler(UnsafeCell::new(Scheduler::new()));
+
+pub fn add_task(mut task: Tcb) -> Result<TaskId, Tcb> {
+    let interrupt_state = crate::arch::disable_interrupts_and_save();
+
+    let result = {
+        let scheduler = unsafe { &mut *SCHEDULER.0.get() };
+
+        match scheduler.tasks.iter().position(Option::is_none) {
+            Some(id) => {
+                task.id = id;
+                task.state = ThreadState::Ready;
+                scheduler.tasks[id] = Some(task);
+                assert!(scheduler.ready.push_back(id));
+                Ok(id)
+            }
+            None => Err(task),
+        }
+    };
+
+    crate::arch::restore_interrupts(interrupt_state);
+    result
+}
+
+pub fn start() -> ! {
+    crate::arch::disable_interrupts();
+
+    let mut bootstrap_context = ThreadContext::empty();
+
+    let switch = {
+        let scheduler = unsafe { &mut *SCHEDULER.0.get() };
+        let next_id = scheduler.ready.pop_front().expect("no tasks to run");
+
+        let next = scheduler.tasks[next_id]
+            .as_mut()
+            .expect("ready task is missing");
+
+        next.state = ThreadState::Running;
+        scheduler.current = Some(next_id);
+
+        Switch {
+            previous_context: &mut bootstrap_context,
+            next_context: &next.context,
+            next_address_space: &next.address_space,
+            next_kernel_stack: next.kernel_stack.top(),
+            activate_address_space: true,
+        }
+    };
+
+    unsafe {
+        switch.perform();
+    }
+
+    panic!("scheduler returned to bootstrap context");
+}
+
+pub fn yield_current() {
+    let interrupt_state = crate::arch::disable_interrupts_and_save();
+
+    let switch = {
+        let scheduler = unsafe { &mut *SCHEDULER.0.get() };
+
+        let Some(next_id) = scheduler.ready.pop_front() else {
+            crate::arch::restore_interrupts(interrupt_state);
+            return;
+        };
+
+        let current_id = scheduler.current.expect("no current task");
+
+        scheduler.tasks[current_id].as_mut().unwrap().state = ThreadState::Ready;
+        assert!(scheduler.ready.push_back(current_id));
+
+        scheduler.tasks[next_id].as_mut().unwrap().state = ThreadState::Running;
+        scheduler.current = Some(next_id);
+
+        scheduler.make_switch(current_id, next_id)
+    };
+
+    unsafe {
+        switch.perform();
+    }
+
+    // this runs when this task is selected to run again
+    crate::arch::restore_interrupts(interrupt_state);
+}
+
+pub fn exit_current(exit_code: usize) -> ! {
+    crate::arch::disable_interrupts();
+
+    let switch = {
+        let scheduler = unsafe { &mut *SCHEDULER.0.get() };
+        let current_id = scheduler.current.expect("no current task");
+        let Some(next_id) = scheduler.ready.pop_front() else {
+            println!("All tasks exited");
+            crate::hcf();
+        };
+
+        let current = scheduler.tasks[current_id].as_mut().unwrap();
+        current.state = ThreadState::Dead(ExitReason::Exited(exit_code));
+
+        scheduler.tasks[next_id].as_mut().unwrap().state = ThreadState::Running;
+        scheduler.current = Some(next_id);
+
+        scheduler.make_switch(current_id, next_id)
+    };
+
+    unsafe {
+        switch.perform();
+    }
+
+    panic!("dead task was scheduled again");
+}

src/task/syscall.rs

@@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
-use crate::{hcf, println};
-
-pub fn handle(
-    syscall_num: u64,
-    arg0: u64,
-    arg1: u64,
-    arg2: u64,
-    arg3: u64,
-    arg4: u64,
-    arg5: u64,
-) -> u64 {
-    println!(
-        "Syscall nr={:#X} args=({:#X}, {:#X}, {:#X}, {:#X}, {:#X}, {:#X})",
-        syscall_num, arg0, arg1, arg2, arg3, arg4, arg5
-    );
-    hcf();
-    0
-}

src/task/tcb.rs

@@ -1,16 +1,23 @@
 use crate::{
     arch::ThreadContext,
     memory::{AddressSpace, KernelStack, VirtualAddr},
-    println,
+    task::loader::LoadedImage,
 };
 
 // Thread Control Block
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum ExitReason {
+    Exited(usize),
+    Killed,
+    Fault,
+}
+
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub enum ThreadState {
     Ready,
     Running,
     Blocked,
-    Dead,
+    Dead(ExitReason),
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
@@ -20,6 +27,7 @@ pub struct Tcb {
     pub kernel_stack: KernelStack,
     pub context: ThreadContext,
     pub address_space: AddressSpace,
+    pub image: LoadedImage,
 }
 
 impl Tcb {
@@ -27,10 +35,10 @@ impl Tcb {
         id: usize,
         address_space: AddressSpace,
         kernel_stack: KernelStack,
-        user_entry: VirtualAddr,
+        image: LoadedImage,
         user_stack: VirtualAddr,
     ) -> Self {
-        let context = ThreadContext::new(user_entry, user_stack, kernel_stack.top());
+        let context = ThreadContext::new(image.entry, user_stack, kernel_stack.top());
 
         Self {
             id,
@@ -38,35 +46,7 @@ impl Tcb {
             kernel_stack,
             context,
             address_space,
+            image,
         }
     }
 }
-
-pub unsafe fn run_first_user(user_tcb: &Tcb) {
-    let previous_interrupts = crate::arch::disable_interrupts_and_save();
-
-    let mut boot_thread_ctx = ThreadContext::empty();
-    unsafe {
-        user_tcb.address_space.activate();
-        crate::arch::set_kernel_stack(user_tcb.kernel_stack.top());
-        crate::arch::switch_context(&mut boot_thread_ctx, &user_tcb.context);
-    }
-
-    crate::arch::restore_interrupts(previous_interrupts);
-}
-
-pub unsafe fn switch(prev: &mut Tcb, next: &Tcb) {
-    let previous_interrupts = crate::arch::disable_interrupts_and_save();
-
-    if prev.address_space != next.address_space {
-        unsafe { next.address_space.activate() };
-    }
-
-    crate::arch::set_kernel_stack(next.kernel_stack.top());
-
-    unsafe {
-        crate::arch::switch_context(&mut prev.context, &next.context);
-    }
-
-    crate::arch::restore_interrupts(previous_interrupts);
-}

userspace/init/Cargo.toml

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+[package]
+name = "init"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2024"
+
+[[bin]]
+name = "init"
+test = false
+bench = false

userspace/init/src/main.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,115 @@
+#![no_std]
+#![no_main]
+
+use core::arch::asm;
+use core::cell::UnsafeCell;
+use core::fmt::Write;
+
+fn sys_yield() {
+    unsafe {
+        asm!("mov rax, 1", "syscall");
+    }
+}
+
+fn sys_write(fd: usize, buf: &str) -> Result<(), usize> {
+    unsafe {
+        let status;
+
+        asm!(
+            "mov rax, 3",
+            "syscall",
+            in("rdi") fd,
+            in("rsi") buf.as_ptr(),
+            in("rdx") buf.len(),
+            in("r10") 0,
+            lateout("rax") status,
+        );
+
+        if status != 0 { Err(status) } else { Ok(()) }
+    }
+}
+
+struct Writer;
+
+impl core::fmt::Write for Writer {
+    fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> core::fmt::Result {
+        sys_write(1, s).map_err(|_| core::fmt::Error)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! print {
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => (let _ = $crate::Writer.write_fmt(format_args!($($arg)*)););
+}
+
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! println {
+    () => ($crate::print!("\n"));
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::print!("{}\n", format_args!($($arg)*)));
+}
+
+pub fn sys_exit(exit_code: usize) -> ! {
+    unsafe {
+        asm!(
+            "mov rax, 2",
+            "syscall",
+            in("rdi") exit_code,
+            options(noreturn)
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+struct Heap {
+    pub data: UnsafeCell<[u8; 1024]>,
+}
+
+impl Heap {
+    const fn new() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            data: UnsafeCell::new([0; 1024]),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn len(&self) -> usize {
+        unsafe { (*self.data.get()).len() }
+    }
+}
+
+impl core::ops::Deref for Heap {
+    type Target = [u8];
+
+    fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target {
+        unsafe { (*self.data.get()).as_ref() }
+    }
+}
+
+unsafe impl Sync for Heap {}
+
+static HEAP: Heap = Heap::new();
+
+#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
+pub extern "C" fn _start() -> ! {
+    (0..100).for_each(|i| {
+        println!("Hello {}", i);
+        sys_yield();
+    });
+
+    let len = HEAP.len();
+    for i in 0..len {
+        unsafe { HEAP.data.get().as_mut().unwrap()[i] = i as u8 };
+    }
+
+    (0..1024).for_each(|i| {
+        println!("{}", unsafe { HEAP.data.get().as_ref().unwrap()[i] });
+        sys_yield();
+    });
+
+    sys_exit(0);
+}
+
+#[panic_handler]
+fn panic(info: &core::panic::PanicInfo) -> ! {
+    println!("{info}");
+    sys_exit(1);
+}